We explore each of the five sources, which need structural solutions, as well as what you as an individual can do.
1 Home heating
Burning solid fuel is the most polluting way to heat homes. The health cost of air pollution from home heating across Europe was estimated at €29bn ($31bn) a year in 2018.
The availability of fossil gas since the 1970s meant many homes in western Europe turned away from solid fuel, leading to large improvements in air quality. For the past two decades, this trend is being reversed with the rising popularity of wood stoves as aesthetic items.
In eastern Europe, home heating with coal remains popular. Studies across Ireland highlight severe particle pollution from wood, coal and peat burning.
2 Agriculture
The main source of PM2.5 from agriculture is ammonia from fertiliser and animal waste. Dr Anna Font, of the research institute IMT Nord Europe, said it represented about 94% of all ammonia emissions in Europe. "Ammonia emitted as a gas will rapidly transform into ammonium particles by combining with sulphate and nitrate. These represent roughly 20% to 40% of total PM2.5 in the air," she said.
Denne historien er fra September 29, 2023-utgaven av The Guardian Weekly.
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Denne historien er fra September 29, 2023-utgaven av The Guardian Weekly.
Start din 7-dagers gratis prøveperiode på Magzter GOLD for å få tilgang til tusenvis av utvalgte premiumhistorier og 9000+ magasiner og aviser.
Allerede abonnent? Logg på
Starlink's conquest of the Amazon leaves Brazil in a dilemma
The helicopter swooped into one of the most inaccessible corners of the Amazon rainforest. Brazilian special forces commandos leaped from it into the caiman-inhabited waters below.
Dalai Lama's mountain town feels the strain of tourist boom
SUVs and saloon cars pass slowly along McLeod Ganj's narrow one-way Jogiwara Road, blaring horns at pedestrians and scooter riders and playing loud music.
'I am all the world' The brutal rule of a West Bank settler
Palestinians tell ofblacklisted Yakov's reign across the Jabal Salman valley and heisjust one of many violent bosses
Stormy waters New flashpoint emerges in South China Sea dispute
Hopes that tensions in the South China Sea might ease have been short lived.
'Justice delayed' Why trust in public inquiries to bring closure is fading
After the final report of the Grenfell fire inquiry was published, Hisam Choucair, who lost six family members in the blaze, said: \"We did not ask for this inquiry... It's delayed the justice my family deserves.\"
Celeriac soup with almond pangrattato
I'm not ashamed to say that as soon as September hits, my stick blender comes out. Just as I embrace salads when the clocks go forward in the UK, I wholeheartedly throw myself into soup season once the summer holidays end. Autumn is approaching in the northern hemisphere and I'm ready with my ladle. Celeriac is one of my favourite soup heroes, because it gives the creamiest, silkiest finish with little effort. You don't have to make the almond pangrattato, but it is a wonderful addition.
Are smoke signals telling me to make an oil change in the kitchen?
Should you that is, not can you) cook with extra-virgin olive oil? Antonio, Atlanta, Georgia, US
Going underground
A darkly humorous encounter between an American spy-cop and the members ofan eco-commune she is hired to infiltrate
All work and no play
Hard Graft, a powerfulnew London exhibition, focuses onworkers’ exploitation, from the ruined hands ofa washerwoman to mothers forced to sell their bodies
What the princess and the shaman tell us about hereditary privilege
It should have been an Instagram-perfect wedding image, but it turned out to be something more embarrassing.