It was soon after the Second World War that ropes made from synthetic materials such as polyester and nylon, and then later polypropylene, first became available. They had massive advantages over their natural fibre predecessors, which were prone to rot and not very strong, but to achieve high strength and low stretch &ndash; in halyards, for instance, and even sheets on larger boats &ndash; it was still necessary to use (stainless) steel wire. It wasn&rsquo;t until the 1980s when Kevlar was first used in rope construction that there were any further developments in terms of materials. Since then a bewildering range of additional high-tech materials have appeared, including Dyneema, Vectran, Technora, Cordura, Zyex and Zylon, which have allowed rope manufacturers to produce increasing numbers of different products. Pure polyester ropes are still available and can adequately perform a general purpose role in different running rigging applications, particularly on cruising boats and club racing boats, but the more serious racers have plenty of opportunities to use different products which have been developed for specific applications. Amongst the more important considerations when selecting a particular type of rope are its intended application &ndash; sheet, halyard, kicker, runner and so on &ndash; and also to what extent it will need to integrate with deck and rig fittings such as winches, jammers and sheaves. It is important to select the right product and it is very easy to select the wrong one.The most commonly used of the high tech materials is Ultra-High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMwPE), easily the best known of which is Dyneema, which is supplied by Dutch company DSM. Dyneema has been available in various forms but the three which are currently commonly available are SK78, SK99 and DM20. Not only is Dyneema extremely strong &ndash; 10 times stronger than steel per unit of weight and twice as strong as Kevlar &ndash; but it also has excellent stretch characteristics (less than 1%); but the SK78 and SK99 do suffer from creep (non-recoverable stretch). DM20, however, has &ldquo;low to non-existent&rdquo; creep characteristics according to Paul Honess, Sales Director of Marlow Ropes, as does Zylon (also known as PBO) and Vectran, making them suitable for lines which are continuously highly loaded for long periods of time, such as running backstays and halyards. To make things all the more complicated, neither is as strong as SK99.<img src="https://magarticles.magzter.com/articles/1273/400223/5e6b56b8e07d9/1584092370834.jpg"" owidth=900 oheight=1119" style="width:300px" />Each of these materials can be used in its own right or (as is more often the case) as a core material with an outer cover. In these applications, the core provides the majority of strength while the cover is there to protect the core and to give an overall diameter, which allows handleability; and the cover can be made from a variety of individual materials, or blends of materials, to suit the application, according to how much abrasion, UV or heat it might experience. The most common cover material is good old polyester, not least because it is relatively inexpensive, but also because it has good resistance to abrasion and UV. But its heat resistance is poor &ndash; &ldquo;if it gets hot enough it melts, and actually looks as if candle wax has dropped on it,&rdquo; said Gordon Bonney of Performance Rigging &ndash; which is a particular problem when easing highly loaded sheets around winches, and so other higher spec materials which have better heat, abrasion and grip qualities are often used in covers, either by themselves or blended together in various combinations. Dyneema, Kevlar, Vectran, Technora, Cordura, Zyex and Zylon area all used in covers and all have some advantages over pure polyester, although none are perfect. Kevlar, for instance, is vulnerable if it is led around tight sheaves (&ldquo;because the fibres chafe each other and it can turn to powder on the inside and then just break,&rdquo; said Bonney) and it also has poor UV resistance although nothing like as bad as Zylon.&ldquo;Zylon&rsquo;s UV resistance is dreadful,&rdquo; said Honess, &ldquo;to the extent that when it breaks down and mixes with water, the crew can get saturated in a green liquid.&rdquo;So it is no surprise that all the major rope manufactures supply products with Dyneema cores &ndash; &ldquo;nearly everything on a racing yacht is going to have Dyneema in it,&rdquo; said James Green of rope suppliers and riggers Jimmy Green Marine &ndash; with varying amounts of Dyneema to reflect different budgets and strength requirements, and with polyester covers. Almost all of them also supply covers with a Technora/ polyester blend and amongst the many other cover combinations available are a PBO/Technora blend (supplied by Marlow Ropes and Southern Ropes); Kevlar/polyester/Cordura (Kingfisher Yacht Ropes and Gottifredi Maffioli who work together on the development and manufacture of various products); PBO/ Dyneema (Liros); Dyneema/polyester (Marlow Ropes, Liros and Gleistein); and PBO/Zylex (Marlow Ropes).<img src="https://magarticles.magzter.com/articles/1273/400223/5e6b56b8e07d9/1584092473249.jpg"" owidth=938 oheight=572" style="width:300px" />With regard to rope construction, cores are traditionally described as being made up of strands, and covers of plaits. Almost all Dyneema cores are 12-strand, although some smaller diameters are 8-strand. Covers can be made up of 16, 24, 32 or even 48-plait. &ldquo;Most of our ropes are 24-plait,&rdquo; Honess told me, &ldquo;because we have found that it holds well in jammers and on winches, and wears well.&rdquo; Most Liros ropes, at least in the larger diameters, are 32-plait but their Herkules range has a &lsquo;one over one&rsquo; cover. &ldquo;One over one is a single strand with a high twist level crossing over another one,&rdquo; said Simon Thomas, Sales Director of UK Liros distributors Seago. &ldquo;It is the most durable jacket Liros produce. It is extremely hard wearing and great in clutches.&rdquo;<img src="https://magarticles.magzter.com/articles/1273/400223/5e6b56b8e07d9/1584093129_loc.jpg"" owidth=1154 oheight=702" />Some ropes have an intermediate layer &ndash; sometimes called a traction jacket - between the core and the cover: Liros&rsquo;s Racer and Regatta 2000, for instance, and Gleistein&rsquo;s Dynalite. &ldquo;Sometimes this is incorporated into a rope with a small Dyneema core where strength is not too crucial, to fill the space and make up the outside diameter,&rdquo; said Neil Brinsden of Advanced Rigging and Hydraulics. &ldquo;It can also work better in clutches because you can get more cohesion between the three layers.&rdquo;Rope technology needs to keep pace with developments in boat construction and deck gear, and vice versa. &ldquo;When someone develops a new clutch, there needs to be a new rope to suit it, and when someone develops a new rope, there needs to be a new clutch to suit it,&rdquo; said Nigel Saddington of Kingfisher Ropes who often carry out in-house testing, sometimes in conjunction with clutch manufacturer Spinlock. &ldquo;It is a bit of an endless circle.&rdquo; Advanced Rigging and Hydraulics also work with Kingfisher and Maffioli to develop new specialised ropes, one of which recently came about when it was realised that there was a need to improve an established product to avoid the highly loaded halyards on the new Melges IC37s slipping in the clutches. The result is Racing Dyneema 99 Pro Halyard (with a stronger SK99 core and a Kevlar/Polyester/Cordura cover for excellent holding power in jammers and clutches) which, Kingfisher expects, will also have a longer life span.<img src="https://magarticles.magzter.com/articles/1273/400223/5e6b56b8e07d9/1584093197_loc.jpg"" owidth=992 oheight=568" />It is all too easy, nowadays, to find a rope with strength and stretch characteristics that are more than adequate for the role intended. In fact problems often begin when existing ropes are upgraded to higher tech ropes which are too strong and not stretchy enough, and which then put unfair loads on a boat and its fittings, which were not designed to take them. &ldquo;You start with a lower grade Dyneema which puts a 650kg load on a jammer with an 800kg limit,&rdquo; said Saddington. &ldquo;But then you might upgrade the rope and increase the loadings to more than a tonne and the jammer just won&rsquo;t hold it.&rdquo; &ldquo;Nowadays you are more likely to pull a fitting out of the deck or break something else than have a rope fail due to being overloaded,&rdquo; agreed Honess.<img src="https://magarticles.magzter.com/articles/1273/400223/5e6b56b8e07d9/1584092590682.jpg"" owidth=1097 oheight=709" style="width:300px" />CUSTOMISATION With regard to customisation, rope manufacturers mostly leave that to rigging companies. Tapered ropes &ndash; both sheets and halyards &ndash; are common requirements on race boats, whereby part of the rope consists of the core only (to save weight and windage) and the remainder has a cover (to maintain the diameter needed for handleability and jamming, and to protect the core). In many instances this will be achieved by starting with a fully covered rope and then removing the cover as necessary. Marlow Ropes, however, offer a less wasteful service. Its catalogue lists cores and covers separately, allowing it to supply any combination and, in the case of tapered ropes, it merely covers the part of the rope which needs it. It is also often useful to add localised jackets for specific purposes. This might be to replace a short length of polyester cover with a piece of Dyneema to reduce chafe which, said Bonney, is particularly useful on 2:1 main halyards round the headboard shackle and on spinnaker halyards with only spectacles [fairleads] to run through on longer passages. A quick option on some jammers where there is slippage, he adds, is to splice on an extra &lsquo;better grip&rsquo; jacket to bulk the rope.<img src="https://magarticles.magzter.com/articles/1273/400223/5e6b56b8e07d9/1584092590939.jpg"" owidth=766 oheight=1054" style="width:300px" />Clearly there is a demand for a variety of coloured ropes for easy identification and in the case of tapered ropes it is often highly desirable for the core and cover to be the same colour as each other. Recent developments have allowed Dyneema to be effectively dyed and Honess said that Marlow &ldquo;can now mix almost any colour you need &ndash; and we have had some outrageous requests!&rdquo; However, when it comes to matching the cover, they are restricted by what polyester colours they can buy economically in sensible quantities. There are also practical considerations with colour. English Braids&rsquo; Sprintline Brights product has the added benefit of neon fibres to produce a rope which is effective in low light.In recent years, the application of various coatings has further enhanced the qualities of high-tech ropes. Liros, for instance, claim that their LCS system increased UV and wear resistance by up to 50%, and also have a water repellent Dry Rope System; while Marlow&rsquo;s coatings include Armourcoat (also for UV and wear resistance), Siliconecoat (a lubricant) and Dricoat (a water repellent).The increasing use of halyard locks has meant that creep is much less of an issue in halyards and so the lighter weight Dyneema is now very much more in favour than Vectran. Despite the poor UV qualities, TP52s and mini maxis often opt for Zylon covers for runners and mainsheets. &ldquo;That&rsquo;s because it has the highest strength and best heat resistance of any material which is important on the new smaller and more aggressive ceramic winch drums,&rdquo; said Honess. &ldquo;We generally recommend that at the end of each day&rsquo;s racing they are immediately removed and put into a container out of the sun to try to prolong their life, but even then they often find they have to renew them after just one or two regattas.&rdquo;DINGHIESAll the major rope manufacturers view the dinghy market as every bit as important as the keelboat market, and most have dedicated products for dinghies. English Braids, for example, offers a high performance Dinghy Dyneema, with a 32-plait polyester cover, and a &lsquo;more supple&rsquo; upgrade called D-Racer 16. A few companies have a small-boat focus, like Rooster, which offers a range of lines recommended by top dinghy sailors. Several companies make sheet ropes with a combination of high strength materials like Dyneema and polypropylene, which provides the bulk to give a manageable overall diameter. &ldquo;All-up weight is an important consideration on a dinghy,&rdquo; said Green, a former Laser sailor in the British Sailing Team. &ldquo;Polypropylene is particularly light and neither Dyneema nor polypropylene absorb water.&rdquo;<img src="https://magarticles.magzter.com/articles/1273/400223/5e6b56b8e07d9/1584092839714.jpg"" owidth=914 oheight=457" style="width:300px" />COSTWith regard to costs, it would be misleading to try to compare the actual prices of different companies&rsquo; products as they all have such different pricing policies according to whether they are selling their products by the metre through chandleries or as made-up items through rigging companies. However, price comparisons can be made within each companies&rsquo; range of products.Kingfisher&rsquo;s new Racing Dyneema 99 Pro Halyard is about 50% more expensive than Racing Dyneema 78 (SK78 core with a polyester cover); Marlow&rsquo;s GP78 (Dyneema SK78 core with polyester and Technora cover) is about 30% more expensive than their D2 Racing (Dyneema SK78 core with pure polyester cover); and Liros&rsquo;s Control XTR (Dyneema SK99 core with Technora/Polyester cover) is about twice the price of their Regatta 2000 (Dyneema SK78 core with polyester cover) which in turn is about 2.3 times the price of their full colour Herkules (polyester core and polyester cover).But whatever the theoretical pros and cons of different products, like with so many things in life, sailors will often be led by fashion.&ldquo;People go to the chandleries and rigging companies and ask about particular things because they have read about them or heard other people talking about them,&rdquo; agreed Martin Bean, formerly of Seago and now of Spencer Rigging.

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